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Memory-Reference Instructions

Most of the computer's instructions tell it to perform a particular basic arithmetic calculation. The form of these instructions is shown below:



In addition to the register to register instructions, and the memory-reference instructions, the diagram also illustrates certain other instructions, the decoding of which is intertwined with that of these instructions.

Because this diagram shows the instructions which make up the largest proportion of the opcode space of the system, this is an appropriate point at which to note that instructions have been designed so as to simplify determining the length of an instruction.

While the scheme is not as simple as that of the IBM 360, in which, originally, an instruction began with 00 if it was 16 bits long, 01 or 10 if it was 32 bits long, and 11 if it was 48 bits long, it still allows the length of an instruction to be determined without fully completing the decoding of an instruction.

As can be seem from the diagram above, usually

0xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx: 16-bit instruction
1xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx: 32-bit instruction

but with the exception that if an instruction begins with 10, and the last three bits, indicating the base register, are zero, then additional 16-bit instructions are indicated.

Also, instructions of the form

00101mmvssxxxxxx

are two-address instructions where the length of the instruction is specified in two parts separately, as a consequence of the addressing modes of the source and destination operands, which may be independently indicated as requiring address fields. Three of the simplest addressing modes for instructions of this type are shown in the diagram; this type of instruction will be discussed in a later section.

As well, instructions of the form

010xxxxxxxxxxxxx

include three-address instructions which allow use of any of the sixty-four supplementary registers, as well as registers from several sets of eight registers. Allowing this type of operation to be specified in only 32 bits is a capability usually provided by RISC architectures.

This group of instructions also includes indexed instructions which offer post-indexed indirect addressing. The scratchpad registers point to regions containing 4,096 addresses, which can be pointers to arrays, so that one scratchpad register can be used to facilitate reference to that many arrays regardless of their size. With conventional memory-reference instructions, each base register points to a region 65,536 bytes in size, and any arrays accessed by means of indexed addressing need to fit in that region, with the possible exception of one array that begins in the area accessible by possible displacements, but extends beyond the block. Thus, if a large number (more than seven) of large arrays (more than 65,536 bytes in size) are in use by any one program, without this mode it becomes necessary to reload one or more base registers when accessing different arrays.

A further exception is not visible on this diagram. Longer instructions are indicated by their first 16 bits corresponding to a register-to-register instruction where the destination register and source register fields are identical.

In a register-to-register instruction, the source and destination registers must be different. When these two fields contain the same number, the instruction is instead decoded to provide an instruction with an advanced addressing mode, for such things as string, packed decimal, or vector operations, or to provide an instruction other than a memory-reference instruction, such as an operate instruction.

Thus, in order for an instruction to be greater than 32 bits in length, the form of the first 16 bits must be the following:

000pxxxxxxabcabc

If the bit marked p is 1, the instruction is followed by a series of additional 16-bit units of which all but the last start with 1, and the last of which starts with 0. (There may be only one such 16-bit unit, starting with zero.) If it is zero, this section of the instruction is not present.

The bits marked abc both contain the number of 16-bit units without any restriction as to their first bit which appear at the end of the instruction. If the p bit is a one, the section of the instruction it indicates precedes these halfwords.

Generally, the section of the instruction indicated by the p bit consists of halfwords which contain various fields relating to the operation to be performed, while the section indicated by the two copies of abc will chiefly consist of halfwords containing addresses.

When the p bit is a one, it is possible for the abc fields to both contain zero, for this format, since that may still result in an instruction longer than 32 bits.


When the p bit is a zero, and the two abc fields both contain 001, as this format would normally indicate an instruction 32 bits in length by the scheme above, and would therefore be redundant, it indicates instead that the instruction will be a three-address instruction with fields which indicate separately if address values are appended to the instruction for the source, operand, and destination operands of the instruction. The PDP-11 is a well-known example of an architecture with this type of instruction; here, the address modes are more complicated, as this instruction format is used for vector arithmetic.

These instructions indicate the addressing modes used in the same way as the two-address instructions beginning with 00111xxxxxxxxxxx except with some of the relevant bits being in different positions.

A two-address instruction has only source and destination operands; in the case of a subtract instruction, the contents of the source operand are subtracted from the contents of the destination operand, and the result is placed in the destination operand. In a three-address subtract instruction, the contents of the source operand are subtracted from the contents of the operand operand, and the result is placed in the destination operand.

When the p bit is a zero, and the two abc fields both contain 000, this arrangement is also redundant, as it would indicate an instruction 16 bits in length. Therefore, this format instead indicates the 16-bit halfword is a 16-bit prefix which precedes an instruction the length of which is determined normally. This allows the potential of future expansion of the opcode space.

Additionally, 32-bit prefixes are also possible; what would be a 32-bit instruction of the form:

1100001xxxxxx000 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

is instead a 32-bit prefix for an instruction, again, one the length of which is decoded normally.


One ingenious idea that allows some opcode space to be obtained from nearly any instruction format without any compromise was used in the SEL 32 series of computers, by Systems Engineering Laboratories. This firm made minicomputers, and it was located in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and NASA was one of its main customers.

Instructions were made more compact by only allowing aligned operands to be addressed. The unused least significant bits of the address in most cases were used to help indicate operand type in the instruction. (This idea is used not only in the regular memory-reference instructions, but in the 16-bit short format memory-reference instructions, and a similar principle is used to halve the amount of opcode space taken up by the shift instructions.)

The dR and sR fields, giving the destination register and the source register for an operation, can contain any value from 0 to 7.

The sB field, indicating the base/address register whose contents indicate the general area in memory from which a memory operand comes, can only contain a value from 1 to 7. When the sB field is zero in what would have been a memory-reference instruction with single-byte operands, this indicates the instruction only occupies a single 16-bit unit in memory, and is a branch instruction. When the sB field is zero in what would have been a memory-reference instruction with other fixed-point operands, this also indicates the instruction only occupies a single 16-bit unit in memory, but in this case it is a floating-point single-operand instruction. When the sB field is zero for what would have been a floating-point memory-reference instruction, the instruction still occupies two 16-bit units in memory, and is an instruction which performs either a load and store, for any of the basic fixed-point or floating-point types, from the appropriate register zero, to any memory address without alignment restrictions.

Also, and more simply, in a memory-reference instruction, the sX field, which indicates the arithmetic/index register whose contents are used to select the element of an array used as a memory operand, can only cause arithmetic/index registers 1 through 7 to act as the index register for the instruction. If this field contains zero, this indicates that indexing does not take place.

Also, a set of three-address register-to-register instructions is provided that are 32 bits in length, and which allow access to the base registers and the various types of scratchpad registers as well as the arithmetic-index registers, the floating-point registers, and the supplementary registers.

Thus, although there are instructions of different lengths, and many of the longer instructions still do not follow the load/store model, in this mode the processor has a full load/store instruction set similar to that of a RISC design, in addition to other non-RISC instructions.

These instructions have nine bits allocated to the opcode, divided between the first two halfwords of the instruction, but the first three bits of the opcode cannot both be 1. This allows these instructions to include additional opcodes for the instructions for the simple floating, decimal exponent, register packed, and floating register compressed types, which will be discussed later.

In addition, since the fixed-point instructions of this group normally have the 64-bit supplementary registers as their destinations, a set of 32-bit integer instructions which use the high 32 bits of their destination register is provided. This is inspired by a similar feature recently added by IBM to its z/Architecture systems with the zEnterprise z196. It differs in that instructions working with the 8-bit or 16-bit types are not included, on the one hand, and, on the other, that multiplication and division instructions are added (but not the multiply extensibly and divide extensibly instructions, which are more closely analogous to the multiply and divide instructions on the IBM 360 architecture).

Note that while most store instructions are omitted as not applicable to the three-address register-to-register instructions, the store high instructions are retained, since they move the high word of the destination operand to the low word of the source operand, while the load high instructions move the low word of the source operand to the high word of the destination operand, and thus both instructions perform distinct and necessary operations.

Note that normal memory-reference instructions will be incompatible with Subdivided Double operation in those cases where it causes double-precision operands to be reduced in size, since (as an example) address values are only available for all positions in memory containing an aligned 64-bit double-precision value, four of which are contained in a 256-bit memory word, and so address values will not be available for all the aligned 51-bit double-precision values which may be used in that mode.

Register to register instructions, and unaligned load/store instructions, as well as scratchpad to register instructions, can still be used.

The opcodes for memory-reference, register-to-register, and three-address register instructions are:

Memory Reference       Register   Three-Address
--------------------   ------     ------
100xxx xxxxxx          0000xx     040xxx 00xxxx     SWB    Swap Byte
101xxx xxxxxx          0002xx     040xxx 01xxxx     CB     Compare Byte
102xxx xxxxxx          0004xx     040xxx 02xxxx     LB     Load Byte
103xxx xxxxxx                                       STB    Store Byte
104xxx xxxxxx          0010xx     040xxx 04xxxx     AB     Add Byte
105xxx xxxxxx          0012xx     040xxx 05xxxx     SB     Subtract Byte
                                               
110xxx xxxxxx          0020xx     040xxx 10xxxx     IB     Insert Byte
111xxx xxxxxx          0022xx     040xxx 11xxxx     UCB    Unsigned Compare Byte
112xxx xxxxxx          0024xx     040xxx 12xxxx     ULB    Unsigned Load Byte
113xxx xxxxxx          0026xx     040xxx 13xxxx     XB     XOR Byte
114xxx xxxxxx          0030xx     040xxx 14xxxx     NB     AND Byte
115xxx xxxxxx          0032xx     040xxx 15xxxx     OB     OR Byte
                                               
117xxx xxxxxx          0036xx                       STGB   Store if Greater Byte
                                               
120xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0040xx     041xxx 00xxxx     SWH    Swap Halfword
121xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0042xx     041xxx 01xxxx     CH     Compare Halfword
122xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0044xx     041xxx 02xxxx     LH     Load Halfword
123xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)                                STH    Store Halfword
124xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0050xx     041xxx 04xxxx     AH     Add Halfword
125xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0052xx     041xxx 05xxxx     SH     Subtract Halfword
126xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0054xx     041xxx 06xxxx     MH     Multiply Halfword
127xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0056xx     041xxx 07xxxx     DH     Divide Halfword
                                               
130xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0060xx     041xxx 10xxxx     IH     Insert Halfword
131xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0062xx     041xxx 11xxxx     UCH    Unsigned Compare Halfword
132xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0064xx     041xxx 12xxxx     ULH    Unsigned Load Halfword
133xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0066xx     041xxx 13xxxx     XH     XOR Halfword
134xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0070xx     041xxx 14xxxx     NH     AND Halfword
135xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0072xx     041xxx 15xxxx     OH     OR Halfword
136xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0074xx     041xxx 16xxxx     MEH    Multiply Extensibly Halfword
137xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0076xx     041xxx 17xxxx     DEH    Divide Extensibly Halfword
                                               
120xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0100xx     042xxx 00xxxx     SW     Swap
121xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0102xx     042xxx 01xxxx     C      Compare
122xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0104xx     042xxx 02xxxx     L      Load
123xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)                                ST     Store
124xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0110xx     042xxx 04xxxx     A      Add
125xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0112xx     042xxx 05xxxx     S      Subtract
126xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0114xx     042xxx 06xxxx     M      Multiply
127xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0116xx     042xxx 07xxxx     D      Divide
                                               
131xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0122xx     042xxx 11xxxx     UC     Unsigned Compare
                                               
133xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0126xx     042xxx 13xxxx     X      XOR
134xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0130xx     042xxx 14xxxx     N      AND
135xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0132xx     042xxx 15xxxx     O      OR
136xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0134xx     042xxx 16xxxx     ME     Multiply Extensibly
137xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0136xx     042xxx 17xxxx     DE     Divide Extensibly
                                               
120xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0140xx     043xxx 00xxxx     SWL    Swap Long
121xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0142xx     043xxx 01xxxx     CL     Compare Long
122xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0144xx     043xxx 02xxxx     LL     Load Long
123xxx xxxxx3 (x011)                                STL    Store Long
124xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0150xx     043xxx 04xxxx     AL     Add Long
125xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0152xx     043xxx 05xxxx     SL     Subtract Long
126xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0154xx     043xxx 06xxxx     ML     Multiply Long
127xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0156xx     043xxx 07xxxx     DL     Divide Long
                                               
131xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0162xx     043xxx 11xxxx     UCL    Unsigned Compare Long
                                               
133xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0166xx     043xxx 13xxxx     XL     XOR Long
134xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0170xx     043xxx 14xxxx     NL     AND Long
135xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0172xx     043xxx 15xxxx     OL     OR Long
136xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0174xx     043xxx 16xxxx     MEL    Multiply Extensibly Long
137xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0176xx     043xxx 17xxxx     DEL    Divide Extensibly Long
                                               
140xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0200xx     044xxx 00xxxx     SWM    Swap Medium
141xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0202xx     044xxx 01xxxx     CM     Compare Medium
142xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0204xx     044xxx 02xxxx     LM     Load Medium
143xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)                                STM    Store Medium
144xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0210xx     044xxx 04xxxx     AM     Add Medium
145xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0212xx     044xxx 05xxxx     SM     Subtract Medium
146xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0214xx     044xxx 06xxxx     MM     Multiply Medium
147xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)   0216xx     044xxx 07xxxx     DM     Divide Medium
                                               
150xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 10xxxx     MEUM   Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized Medium
151xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 11xxxx     DEUM   Divide Extensibly Unnormalized Medium
152xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 12xxxx     LUM    Load Unnormalized Medium
153xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 13xxxx     STUM   Store Unnormalized Medium
154xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 14xxxx     AUM    Add Unnormalized Medium
155xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 15xxxx     SUM    Subtract Unnormalized Medium
156xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 16xxxx     MUM    Multiply Unnormalized Medium
157xxx xxxxx0 (xxx0)              044xxx 17xxxx     DUM    Divide Unnormalized Medium
                                               
140xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0220xx     045xxx 00xxxx     SWF    Swap Floating
141xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0222xx     045xxx 01xxxx     CF     Compare Floating
142xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0224xx     045xxx 02xxxx     LF     Load Floating
143xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)                                STF    Store Floating
144xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0230xx     045xxx 04xxxx     AF     Add Floating
145xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0232xx     045xxx 05xxxx     SF     Subtract Floating
146xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0234xx     045xxx 06xxxx     MF     Multiply Floating
147xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)   0236xx     045xxx 07xxxx     DF     Divide Floating
                                               
150xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 10xxxx     MEU    Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized
151xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 11xxxx     DEU    Divide Extensibly Unnormalized
152xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 12xxxx     LU     Load Unnormalized
153xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)                                STU    Store Unnormalized
154xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 14xxxx     AU     Add Unnormalized
155xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 15xxxx     SU     Subtract Unnormalized
156xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 16xxxx     MU     Multiply Unnormalized
157xxx xxxxx1 (xx01)              045xxx 17xxxx     DU     Divide Unnormalized
                                               
140xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0240xx     046xxx 00xxxx     SWD    Swap Double
141xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0242xx     046xxx 01xxxx     CD     Compare Double
142xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0244xx     046xxx 02xxxx     LD     Load Double
143xxx xxxxx3 (x011)                                STD    Store Double
144xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0250xx     046xxx 04xxxx     AD     Add Double
145xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0252xx     046xxx 05xxxx     SD     Subtract Double
146xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0254xx     046xxx 06xxxx     MD     Multiply Double
147xxx xxxxx3 (x011)   0256xx     046xxx 07xxxx     DD     Divide Double
                                               
150xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 10xxxx     MEUD   Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized Double
151xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 11xxxx     DEUD   Divide Extensibly Unnormalized Double
152xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 12xxxx     LUD    Load Unnormalized Double
153xxx xxxxx3 (x011)                                STUD   Store Unnormalized Double
154xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 14xxxx     AUD    Add Unnormalized Double
155xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 15xxxx     SUD    Subtract Unnormalized Double
156xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 16xxxx     MUD    Multiply Unnormalized Double
157xxx xxxxx3 (x011)              046xxx 17xxxx     DUD    Divide Unnormalized Double
                                               
140xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0260xx     047xxx 00xxxx     SWQ    Swap Quad
141xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0262xx     047xxx 01xxxx     CQ     Compare Quad
142xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0264xx     047xxx 02xxxx     LQ     Load Quad
143xxx xxxxx7 (0111)                                STQ    Store Quad
144xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0270xx     047xxx 04xxxx     AQ     Add Quad
145xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0272xx     047xxx 05xxxx     SQ     Subtract Quad
146xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0274xx     047xxx 06xxxx     MQ     Multiply Quad
147xxx xxxxx7 (0111)   0276xx     047xxx 07xxxx     DQ     Divide Quad
                                               
150xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 10xxxx     MEUQ   Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized Quad
151xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 11xxxx     DEUQ   Divide Extensibly Unnormalized Quad
152xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 12xxxx     LUQ    Load Unnormalized Quad
153xxx xxxxx7 (0111)                                STUQ   Store Unnormalized Quad
154xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 14xxxx     AUQ    Add Unnormalized Quad
155xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 15xxxx     SUQ    Subtract Unnormalized Quad
156xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 16xxxx     MUQ    Multiply Unnormalized Quad
157xxx xxxxx7 (0111)              047xxx 17xxxx     DUQ    Divide Unnormalized Quad
                                               
                                  050xxx 00xxxx     SWHG   Swap High
                                  050xxx 01xxxx     CHG    Compare High
                                  050xxx 02xxxx     LHG    Load High
                                  050xxx 03xxxx     STHG   Store High
                                  050xxx 04xxxx     AHG    Add High
                                  050xxx 05xxxx     SHG    Subtract High
                                  050xxx 06xxxx     MHG    Multiply High
                                  050xxx 07xxxx     DHG    Divide High
                                               
                                  050xxx 11xxxx     UCHG   Unsigned Compare High
                                               
                                  050xxx 13xxxx     XHG    XOR High
                                  050xxx 14xxxx     NHG    AND High
                                  050xxx 15xxxx     OHG    OR High
                                               
                                  051xxx 00xxxx     SFSWL  Simple Floating Swap Halfword
                                  051xxx 01xxxx     SFCL   Simple Floating Compare Halfword
                                  051xxx 02xxxx     SFLL   Simple Floating Load Halfword
                                               
                                  051xxx 04xxxx     SFAL   Simple Floating Add Halfword
                                  051xxx 05xxxx     SFSL   Simple Floating Subtract Halfword
                                  051xxx 06xxxx     SFML   Simple Floating Multiply Halfword
                                  051xxx 07xxxx     SFDL   Simple Floating Divide Halfword
                                               
                                  051xxx 10xxxx     SFMEUH Simple Floating Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized Halfword
                                  051xxx 11xxxx     SFDEUH Simple Floating Divide Extensibly Unnormalized Halfword
                                  051xxx 12xxxx     SFLUH  Simple Floating Load Unnormalized Halfword
                                               
                                  051xxx 14xxxx     SFAUH  Simple Floating Add Unnormalized Halfword
                                  051xxx 15xxxx     SFSUH  Simple Floating Subtract Unnormalized Halfword
                                  051xxx 16xxxx     SFMUH  Simple Floating Multiply Unnormalized Halfword
                                  051xxx 17xxxx     SFDUH  Simple Floating Divide Unnormalized Halfword
                                               
                                  052xxx 00xxxx     SFSW   Simple Floating Swap
                                  052xxx 01xxxx     SFC    Simple Floating Compare
                                  052xxx 02xxxx     SFL    Simple Floating Load
                                               
                                  052xxx 04xxxx     SFA    Simple Floating Add
                                  052xxx 05xxxx     SFS    Simple Floating Subtract
                                  052xxx 06xxxx     SFM    Simple Floating Multiply
                                  052xxx 07xxxx     SFD    Simple Floating Divide
                                               
                                  052xxx 00xxxx     SFMEU  Simple Floating Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized
                                  052xxx 01xxxx     SFDEU  Simple Floating Divide Extensibly Unnormalized
                                  052xxx 02xxxx     SFLU   Simple Floating Load Unnormalized
                                               
                                  052xxx 04xxxx     SFAU   Simple Floating Add Unnormalized
                                  052xxx 05xxxx     SFSU   Simple Floating Subtract Unnormalized
                                  052xxx 06xxxx     SFMU   Simple Floating Multiply Unnormalized
                                  052xxx 07xxxx     SFDU   Simple Floating Divide Unnormalized
                                               
                                  053xxx 00xxxx     SFSWL  Simple Floating Swap Long
                                  053xxx 01xxxx     SFCL   Simple Floating Compare Long
                                  053xxx 02xxxx     SFLL   Simple Floating Load Long
                                               
                                  053xxx 04xxxx     SFAL   Simple Floating Add Long
                                  053xxx 05xxxx     SFSL   Simple Floating Subtract Long
                                  053xxx 06xxxx     SFML   Simple Floating Multiply Long
                                  053xxx 07xxxx     SFDL   Simple Floating Divide Long
                                               
                                  053xxx 10xxxx     SFMEUL Simple Floating Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized Long
                                  053xxx 11xxxx     SFDEUL Simple Floating Divide Extensibly Unnormalized Long
                                  053xxx 12xxxx     SFLUL  Simple Floating Load Unnormalized Long
                                               
                                  053xxx 14xxxx     SFAUL  Simple Floating Add Unnormalized Long
                                  053xxx 15xxxx     SFSUL  Simple Floating Subtract Unnormalized Long
                                  053xxx 16xxxx     SFMUL  Simple Floating Multiply Unnormalized Long
                                  053xxx 17xxxx     SFDUL  Simple Floating Divide Unnormalized Long
                                               
                                  054xxx 01xxxx     RPC    Register Packed Compare
                                  054xxx 02xxxx     RPME   Register Packed Multiply Extensibly
                                  054xxx 03xxxx     RPDE   Register Packed Divide Extensibly
                                  054xxx 04xxxx     RPA    Register Packed Add
                                  054xxx 05xxxx     RPS    Register Packed Subtract
                                  054xxx 06xxxx     RPM    Register Packed Multiply
                                  054xxx 07xxxx     RPD    Register Packed Divide
                                               
                                  054xxx 11xxxx     RPCL   Register Packed Compare Long
                                  054xxx 12xxxx     RPMEL  Register Packed Multiply Extensibly Long
                                  054xxx 13xxxx     RPDEL  Register Packed Divide Extensibly Long
                                  054xxx 14xxxx     RPAL   Register Packed Add Long
                                  054xxx 15xxxx     RPSL   Register Packed Subtract Long
                                  054xxx 16xxxx     RPML   Register Packed Multiply Long
                                  054xxx 17xxxx     RPDL   Register Packed Divide Long
                                               
                                  055xxx 01xxxx     RCDC   Register Compressed Decimal Compare
                                  055xxx 02xxxx     RCDME  Register Compressed Decimal Multiply Extensibly
                                  055xxx 03xxxx     RCDDE  Register Compressed Decimal Divide Extensibly
                                  055xxx 04xxxx     RCDA   Register Compressed Decimal Add
                                  055xxx 05xxxx     RCDS   Register Compressed Decimal Subtract
                                  055xxx 06xxxx     RCDM   Register Compressed Decimal Multiply
                                  055xxx 07xxxx     RCDD   Register Compressed Decimal Divide
                                               
                                  055xxx 11xxxx     RCDCL  Register Compressed Decimal Compare Long
                                  055xxx 12xxxx     RCDMEL Register Compressed Decimal Multiply Extensibly Long
                                  055xxx 13xxxx     RCDDEL Register Compressed Decimal Divide Extensibly Long
                                  055xxx 14xxxx     RCDAL  Register Compressed Decimal Add Long
                                  055xxx 15xxxx     RCDSL  Register Compressed Decimal Subtract Long
                                  055xxx 16xxxx     RCDML  Register Compressed Decimal Multiply Long
                                  055xxx 17xxxx     RCDDL  Register Compressed Decimal Divide Long
                                               
                                  056xxx 00xxxx     SWMDE  Swap Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 01xxxx     CMDE   Compare Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 02xxxx     LMDE   Load Medium Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  056xxx 04xxxx     AMDE   Add Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 05xxxx     SMDE   Subtract Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 06xxxx     MMDE   Multiply Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 07xxxx     DMDE   Divide Medium Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  056xxx 12xxxx     LUMDE  Load Unnormalized Medium Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  056xxx 14xxxx     AUMDE  Add Unnormalized Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 15xxxx     SUMDE  Subtract Unnormalized Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 16xxxx     MUMDE  Multiply Unnormalized Medium Decimal Exponent
                                  056xxx 17xxxx     DUMDE  Divide Unnormalized Medium Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  057xxx 00xxxx     SWDDE Swap Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 01xxxx     CDDE  Compare Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 02xxxx     LDDE  Load Double Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  057xxx 04xxxx     ADDE  Add Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 05xxxx     SDDE  Subtract Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 06xxxx     MDDE  Multiply Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 07xxxx     DDDE  Divide Double Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  057xxx 12xxxx     LUDDE  Load Unnormalized Double Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  057xxx 14xxxx     AUDDE  Add Unnormalized Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 15xxxx     SUDDE  Subtract Unnormalized Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 16xxxx     MUDDE  Multiply Unnormalized Double Decimal Exponent
                                  057xxx 17xxxx     DUDDE  Divide Unnormalized Double Decimal Exponent
                                               
                                  060xxx 00xxxx     SWFRC   Swap Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 01xxxx     CFRC    Compare Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 02xxxx     LFRC    Load Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  060xxx 04xxxx     AFRC    Add Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 05xxxx     SFRC    Subtract Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 06xxxx     MFRC    Multiply Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 07xxxx     DFRC    Divide Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  060xxx 12xxxx     LUFRC   Load Unnormalized Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  060xxx 14xxxx     AUFRC   Add Unnormalized Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 15xxxx     SUFRC   Subtract Unnormalized Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 16xxxx     MUFRC   Multiply Unnormalized Floating Register Compressed
                                  060xxx 17xxxx     DUFRC   Divide Unnormalized Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  061xxx 04xxxx     AFRCH   Add Floating Register Compressed Humanized
                                  061xxx 05xxxx     SFRCH   Subtract Floating Register Compressed Humanized
                                  061xxx 06xxxx     MFRCH   Multiply Floating Register Compressed Humanized
                                  061xxx 07xxxx     DFRCH   Divide Floating Register Compressed Humanized
                                               
                                  062xxx 00xxxx     SWDRC   Swap Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 01xxxx     CDRC    Compare Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 02xxxx     LDRC    Load Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  062xxx 04xxxx     ADRC    Add Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 05xxxx     SDRC    Subtract Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 06xxxx     MDRC    Multiply Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 07xxxx     DDRC    Divide Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  062xxx 12xxxx     LUDRC   Load Unnormalized Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  062xxx 14xxxx     AUDRC   Add Unnormalized Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 15xxxx     SUDRC   Subtract Unnormalized Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 16xxxx     MUDRC   Multiply Unnormalized Double Register Compressed
                                  062xxx 17xxxx     DUDRC   Divide Unnormalized Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  063xxx 04xxxx     AFDCH   Add Double Register Compressed Humanized
                                  063xxx 05xxxx     SFDCH   Subtract Double Register Compressed Humanized
                                  063xxx 06xxxx     MFDCH   Multiply Double Register Compressed Humanized
                                  063xxx 07xxxx     DFDCH   Divide Double Register Compressed Humanized
                                               
                                  064xxx 00xxxx     SWQRC   Swap Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 01xxxx     CQRC    Compare Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 02xxxx     LQRC    Load Quad Register Compressed
                                               
                                  064xxx 04xxxx     AQRC    Add Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 05xxxx     SQRC    Subtract Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 06xxxx     MQRC    Multiply Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 07xxxx     DQRC    Divide Quad Register Compressed
                                               
                                  064xxx 12xxxx     LUQRC   Load Unnormalized Quad Register Compressed
                                               
                                  064xxx 14xxxx     AUQRC   Add Unnormalized Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 15xxxx     SUQRC   Subtract Unnormalized Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 16xxxx     MUQRC   Multiply Unnormalized Quad Register Compressed
                                  064xxx 17xxxx     DUQRC   Divide Unnormalized Quad Register Compressed
                                               
                                  065xxx 04xxxx     AFDCH   Add Quad Register Compressed Humanized
                                  065xxx 05xxxx     SFDCH   Subtract Quad Register Compressed Humanized
                                  065xxx 06xxxx     MFDCH   Multiply Quad Register Compressed Humanized
                                  065xxx 07xxxx     DFDCH   Divide Quad Register Compressed Humanized
                                               
                                  066xxx 00xxxx     SWNFRC  Swap Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 01xxxx     CNFRC   Compare Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 02xxxx     LNFRC   Load Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  066xxx 04xxxx     ANFRC   Add Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 05xxxx     SNFRC   Subtract Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 06xxxx     MNFRC   Multiply Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 07xxxx     DNFRC   Divide Numerical Floating Register Compressed
                                               
                                  066xxx 10xxxx     SWNDRC  Swap Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 11xxxx     CNDRC   Compare Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 12xxxx     LNDRC   Load Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  066xxx 14xxxx     ANDRC   Add Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 15xxxx     SNDRC   Subtract Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 16xxxx     MNDRC   Multiply Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                  066xxx 17xxxx     DNDRC   Divide Numerical Double Register Compressed
                                               
                                  067xxx 00xxxx     SWNQRC  Swap Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                  067xxx 01xxxx     CNQRC   Compare Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                  067xxx 02xxxx     LNQRC   Load Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                               
                                  067xxx 04xxxx     ANQRC   Add Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                  067xxx 05xxxx     SNQRC   Subtract Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                  067xxx 06xxxx     MNQRC   Multiply Numerical Quad Register Compressed
                                  067xxx 07xxxx     DNQRC   Divide Numerical Quad Register Compressed

                                  077xxx 04xxxx     AEQ     Add Extensibly Quad
                                  077xxx 05xxxx     SEQ     Subtract Extensibly Quad
                                  077xxx 06xxxx     MEQ     Multiply Extensibly Quad

The opcodes for the unaligned load/store instructions are:

142xx0   UALH   Unaligned Load Halfword
143xx0   UASTH  Unaligned Store Halfword
144xx0   UAL    Unaligned Load
145xx0   UAST   Unaligned Store
146xx0   UALL   Unaligned Load Long
147xx0   UASTL  Unaligned Store Long
150xx0   UALM   Unaligned Load Medium
151xx0   UASTM  Unaligned Store Medium
152xx0   UALF   Unaligned Load Floating
153xx0   UASTF  Unaligned Store Floating
154xx0   UALD   Unaligned Load Double
155xx0   UASTD  Unaligned Store Double
156xx0   UALQ   Unaligned Load Quad
157xx0   UASTQ  Unaligned Store Quad

The opcodes for the scratchpad load/store instructions are:

042xx0   SLH   Scratchpad Load Halfword
043xx0   SSTH  Scratchpad Store Halfword
044xx0   SL    Scratchpad Load
045xx0   SST   Scratchpad Store
046xx0   SLL   Scratchpad Load Long
047xx0   SSTL  Scratchpad Store Long
050xx0   SLM   Scratchpad Load Medium
051xx0   SSTM  Scratchpad Store Medium
052xx0   SLF   Scratchpad Load Floating
053xx0   SSTF  Scratchpad Store Floating
054xx0   SLD   Scratchpad Load Double
055xx0   SSTD  Scratchpad Store Double
056xx0   SLQ   Scratchpad Load Quad
057xx0   SSTQ  Scratchpad Store Quad

It is intended that the 64 scratchpad registers can be used to keep values with which a program is currently working, so that references to memory can be kept to a minimum. Thus, although memory-reference instructions also include arithmetic operations, unlike the case on a RISC architecture, the motivation behind a load/store architecture is still accepted as valid.

In the instruction mnemonics, "Long" refers to 64-bit integers, "Medium" to 48-bit floating-point numbers, "Floating" to 32-bit single-precision floating-point numbers, and "Quad" to 128-bit extended-precision floating-point numbers.

Integer operations working with long, or 64-bit integers, have as their destination a pair of registers, beginning with an even-numbered register. The location of an operand in memory can begin with any byte, as addresses are byte addresses, but there may be a performance penalty if an operand is fetched from an unaligned location. In the case of floating-point numbers of the medium type, 48 bits in length, an aligned operand is one that begins on the boundary of a unit of 16 bits; for other types, an aligned operand is one whose address is an integer multiple of its length in bytes, so that all memory could be evenly divided into units of that length with no bytes left over at the beginning or the end. Note that it may be attempted by an implementation to fetch more than 16 bits of a medium floating-point number in a single operation, in which case a performance penalty may be experienced on aligned operands on this type which cross a block boundary; the rules for this would be both more complicated and implementation-dependent.

For integers shorter than 32 bits, the insert and unsigned load instructions are used as possible alternatives to the load instruction. The difference between the three instructions is as follows:

The load instruction performs sign extension. A quantity loaded into a 32-bit register is loaded into its rightmost, or least significant, bits, and the first bit of that quantity is also used as the value to which to set all the bits to the left of those filled by the quantity. This ensures that a negative number represented in a variable occupying less than 32 bits of memory is converted to the same negative number in 32-bit form.

The unsigned load instruction fills the bits to the left of the number with zeroes. This allows using variables to represent positive numbers only, and recovering the use of the first bit to allow larger positive numbers to be represented.

The insert instruction does not alter the bits to the left of the number. This allows a 32-bit number to be built up out of smaller pieces.

Other instructions that may need some explanation are as follows:

The compare instruction sets certain status bits in the same way that an ideal subtraction would set them. That is, the status bits indicate "negative" if the destination is less than the source, "zero" if they are equal, and "positive" if the destination is larger than the source, even if performing an actual subtraction for the same argument type would result in an overflow.

The unsigned compare instruction treats its operands as unsigned numbers, since this makes a difference in what the result of a comparison would be, even though two's complement representation means that a subtraction produces the same resulting pattern of bits in both cases.

The multiply extensibly instruction has a destination which is as long as the source on entry, but twice as long as its source on exit. This means that it produces a double-length product of two values, allowing it to be used in performing multi-precision arithmetic.

The divide extensibly instruction has a destination which is twice as long as the source on entry, and which consists of two consecutive registers, or groups of registers, the first twice as long as the source, and the second as long as the source, on exit. It divides the destination by the source, and places the quotient in the first part of the destination, while leaving the remainder in the second, shorter, part of the destination.

Note that because not only the dividend, but also the quotient, is twice as long as the divisor and the remainder with this instruction, the condition known as a "divide check", where a large dividend and a small divisor results in a quotient that will not fit into the result field on exit cannot occur.

The other instructions are self-explanatory.

The swap instruction exchanges the contents of the source and destination.

Add, subtract, multiply, and divide perform the indicated operation, producing results of the same type as their operands.

AND, OR, and XOR perform the basic logical operations:

 a  b    a AND b    a OR b    a XOR b
--------------------------------------
 0  0       0         0          0
 0  1       0         1          1
 1  0       0         1          1
 1  1       1         1          0

in a bitwise fashion on their operands, storing the result in the destination.

A store instruction takes the value at the location specified by the destination field, and stores it at the location specified by the source field. By reversing the normal uses of destination and source, it allows values in registers to be written back out to memory.

Not all the possible combinations of the bits shown above are valid instructions. The Insert and Unsigned Load instructions only apply to byte and halfword operands. Also, Multiplication and division are not provided for byte operands. Instead, the instruction that would have been Divide Extensibly Byte is Store if Greater Byte: this instruction compares the destination byte (which is in a register) to the source byte (which may be in memory), and if the source byte is less than the destination byte, the byte at the destination is copied to the source location, overwriting its contents. This specialized instruction is used to allow semaphores to be used to control the sharing of resources between processes.

Unnormalized Floating Point Instructions

When the computer is operating on floating-point numbers in IEEE 754 format, these instructions are, of course, not available, since the leading 1 bit of the mantissa is suppressed, which requires that the number must be normalized, except in the special case of gradual underflow.

However, this architecture offers the option of changing the mode of floating-point operation to use other floating-point formats, in which numbers may generally be represented in an unnormalized form.

Unnormalized add or subtract instructions operate by first aligning the operand with the lower exponent with the other operand, and then performing the addition or subtraction on the mantissa portion of the arguments. If a carry out of the mantissa results, a single right shift, with adjustment of the exponent, is performed; otherwise, no repositioning of the mantissa is performed.

Unnormalized multiply or divide instructions produce a result which has either as many leading zeroes as or one less leading zero than that of the operand with the greater number of leading zeroes, so as to correctly indicate the significance of the result. The number of leading zeroes will be the same if the mantissa of the result is equal to or greater than the mantissa of the operand with the greater number of leading zeroes (in the case where both operands have the same number of leading zeroes, if the mantissa of the operand is equal to or greater than the mantissas of both operands), and it will be one less otherwise. Thus, these instructions, unlike the unnormalized add and subtract instructions, do not work by merely omitting a postnormalization step; instead, they are specifically designed to support significance arithmetic.

Significance arithmetic is one method of allowing a computer to keep track of ongoing errors in a calculation. Other methods of doing this are also available, significance arithmetic is considered by some to be flawed, and at least one of the other methods of doing this, interval arithmetic, tends to be acknowledged as having a somewhat greater degree of mathematical validity than significance arithmetic, although it, too, is considered to be of limited benefit rather than approaching the effectiveness of a panacea in this area.

Despite the fact that these concerns have some validity, the simple form of significance arithmetic that can be obtained through unnormalized arithmetic is considerably more amenable to a hardware implementation than most other possible methods. The IBM 7030, or STRETCH, had an option of adding a constant value, termed a noise value, to the last bits of floating-point numbers; thus, this option was equivalent to the method, available today on IEEE-754-compliant systems today of running the same program with different rounding modes selected, although it resembles a different proposed method, of appending random noise bits to the ends of floating-point numbers.

The major limitation of significance arithmetic is that it will indicate when precision is lost in an individual step of a calculation, but it will not indicate how error accumulates due to the involvement of a large number of quantities of limited accuracy in a calculation. This limitation is not entirely a bad thing, as it does not prevent significance arithmetic from pointing out correctable deficiencies in programs, while still permitting that form of arithmetic to be used even with computations such as simulations, from which useful data can be obtained, even though the final "result", in the sense of the state of the system, is nonsense. That is, a simulation of the Earth's atmosphere can still be used to learn general facts about how different types of weather systems behave, even if it is allowed to run past the amount of simulated time for which it could, if loaded with the actual present state of the Earth's atmosphere, yield accurate weather forecasts. (A full discussion of chaos theory is beyond the scope of this section.)

Note that there is one circumstance under which an unnormalized arithmetic instruction will not retain significance, but will instead post-normalize despite the fact that this will indicate the presence of nonexistent significance in this number: that is when the result is near the upper end of the valid exponent range, and an unnormalized result would lead to exponent overflow.

The unnormalized multiply extensibly and divide extensibly instructions behave like the analogous operations on integers, where the mantissa portions of the arguments are the integers, and the exponents are adjusted so as to indicate the numerical magnitude of the result. Where numbers occupying a pair of registers are generated, both have an exponent part, and the difference between the two exponents reflects the precision of the floating-point type in use. Fixed-point overflow of the exponent is allowed and ignored, and, where a special value of the exponent is used to indicate symbols representing "not-a-number" (NaN) values, that value is skipped. (This would include the exponent value used in the representation of zero in the Standard format, but unnormalized operations are, of course, not defined for that format.)

Unlike the integer multiply extensibly and divide extensibly instructions, their operands always consist of multiple registers at the given precision; a double-length operand is never a single register at a higher precision. Thus, these instructions always behave like Multiply Extensibly and Divide Extensibly, never like Multiply Extensibly Halfword and Divide Extensibly Halfword, even when the basic type does not have the full 128-bit length of a floating-point register.

In an unnormalized multiply extensibly instruction, if the destination is in register N, the product is in registers N and N+1; register N+1 contains an exponent equal to the sum of the exponents of the arguments, and register N has an adjusted exponent which may be incorrect if a fixed-point overflow took place.

In an unnormalized divide extensibly instruction, when the destination field of the instruction specifies register N, the dividend is in register N and N+1, and the exponent in register N is the one considered as being valid; after the operation, registers N and N+1 contain the quotient, which is not rounded, unlike the result of a regular unnormalized divide instruction, and register N+2 contains the remainder.

It is these instructions, rather than the simple multiply unnormalized and divide unnormalized instructions, that work by omitting postnormalization, because their purpose is to facilitate software multi-precision floating-point operations.

The Multiply Extensibly Unnormalized and Divide Extensibly Unnormalized instructions are unavailable, even though the other unnormalized operations are available, with the Modified Comprehensive, Modified Standard, and Modified Native formats. However, if neither Extremely Gradual Underflow nor Extremely Gradual Overflow is enabled, they are available, along with the other unnormalized operations, for the Native format, and if these features, and Hyper-Gradual Overflow and Hyper-Gradual Underflow as well are all turned off, they are also available, along with the other unnormalized operations, for the Comprehensive format.

Note that there are no unnormalized single-operand instructions. Dividing a number by itself will provide a one with the same number of significant digits as the original number, and this can be multiplied by the result of a conventional single-operand instruction to produce a result with the desired significance. This technique is, however, not applicable to all the single-operand instructions; the logarithm function is an obvious case where a special rule applies to the number of significant bits in the logarithm of a number with a given number of significant bits.

Extensible Quad Operations

As contrasted with the MEUQ instruction, the MEQ instruction does not omit postnormalization. Its purpose is specifically to facilitate work with 256-bit floating point numbers composed of two 128-bit extended-precision floating point numbers.

There are also AEQ and SEQ instructions which place the sum of two 128-bit extended-precision floating-point numbers in two consecutive registers containing two 128-bit extended-precision floating-point numbers with offset exponents.

These three instructions work in the same fashion as the add, subtract, and multiply instructions which were provided on the IBM 704 computer and its successors, facilitating double precision in software.


The more straightforwards operate instructions will be discussed in the next section, such as the jump instruction and memory-reference instructions for packed decimal and character-string types.


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